General Principles of Criminal Liability Assignment

General Principles of Criminal Liability - Assignment Example And, anything that does not match with such goodness is evil or crime deserving punishment. Such a belief is followed by the society as a whole and such moral thoughts consider crime as evil, reflecting a direct association of the criminal law and morality (Gilly, Gilinskiy and Sergevnin 2009). Jurisprudential positivists have tried to focus on the fact that law and morality are separated. The connection between law and morality was mainly supported by the classical natural law thinkers. However positivism reflects a theory that criminal law is not associated with moral. The positivists tried their best to distinguish between law and morality but it could be obtained that if the two were separated then all intersections of criminal law and morality would be rejected. Thus the concept of positivism in relation to cause a separation between law and morality was found to be confusing and hence eventually unacceptable (Legal Positivism of Law 2012). The inherent relation between law and morality has become more prominent. This is reflected in issues of homosexual marriage or rights of abortion where the criminal law based on English law can be seen to be supporting issues based on the moral principles carried by the society since the early times. One of the most common cases in the English law that reflects on the relation between the criminal law and mortality is the Regina v. Dudley & Stephens Case. The case reflects upon two men and a boy who became stranded at a sea, and when they were almost dying, the two men decided to kill the boy and eat him up, considering the fact that the boy did not have a family like they did, and also was starving. However, post their rescue, the two men were charged by the court as guilty of the murder and the law does not have support for the excuse they presented (Regina v. Dudley & Stephens: Morality, Murder and the Criminal Law 2009). In the above mentioned cases, the decisions of the legal system have significantly been based o n the moral beliefs of the society. Thus it can be said that although the positivists tried to distinguish the two considering the fact that the nature of the law needs to be different and irrespective of the moral beliefs of the society; however, it could not be achieved and hence the inherent relation of law and morality is prevalent and can be significantly seen in several criminal cases in the present times. Solution 2: As far as legal certainty with regard to English law is concerned, there are laws that determine the laws in the system. There are particular discipline and approaches of all lawyers that they use for resolution of legal issues. One of the main aims of the system of precedent is to establish legal certainty. Considering the law of precedent, the legal system should stand by what it has decided on any particular issue. This is also known as the doctrine of stare decisis, where for example, the decision taken by a High Court is imposed upon the lower courts. Howeve r, such a legal system would only mean that in certain cases, the treatment for same crimes or acts might become different thereby raising the question of injustice, if the precedent cases are not highlighted or overviewed while considering a current case (Perell 1987). As could be observed in the case of Bell v Lever Brothers Ltd, the judgment was based

What Is Beauty Essay Example for Free

What Is Beauty Essay She is so beautiful, the girl said as she gazed in awe- and with a slight trace of jealousy- at the woman walking down the street. Beautiful. What does it mean? Is beauty a synonym for pretty or does it connote something else entirely? Who defines what is beautiful? The definition of beauty has been contended with for centuries and across many continents. Many have concluded that, Beauty is in the eyes of the beholder. Although this saying does contain truth, the definition of beauty is more specifically influenced by history, by cultural norms, and by universal standards. Each classification has contributed to the overall definition of beauty. The definition of beauty has been manipulated by history within many different countries. This definition has evolved over time. During the European Renaissance between the 14th and 17th centuries, certain traits such as high foreheads, voluptuous figures, and pale skin were considered beautiful (Sherrow). These traits were considered high class and characteristics of royalty. Mary Queen of Scots doesnt look beautiful to us Beaky nose, beady eyes, small, pursed mouth. Yet in many letter and accounts of the time, she was described as the most beautiful princess in Europe, with glowing details of her amber-colored hair, milky white complexion and so on (Shulman) In distinct contrast to the descriptions defining beauty during the European Renaissance, modern day culture in America dictates beauty defined through slender bodies (Burnell and Gold), tan skin (Donohoe), and youthfulness (Newman). The definition of beauty has continuously developed, and has been directed by evolving history. Beauty during the European Renaissance is a far from the way beauty is defined today. As times change, so does the definition of beauty. Not only has the definition of beauty been persuaded by evolved history, history has influenced the development of modern beauty practices that contribute to the description of beauty. Beauty products and practices have always been used; they have simply progressed in order to fulfill current standards of beauty. The article in Elle Magazine discusses LOreals new book series, which accounts the history of many beauty products and practices. One beauty product that has been developed through the guidance of history, and has influenced the definition of beauty, is foundation. Foundation has been used for centuries. In 200 B. C. Greek and Roman women would apply a powdered white lead to their skin. Although this lead makeup was toxic, it was commonly used until the 1800s. During the Elizabethan-era (1558-1603), women used a cosmetic known as ceruse (composed of white lead and vinegar) to create the ideal of creamy-white looking skin. From the 1920s to the present, foundation has evolved. By 2010, makeup was often enhanced with sunscreen protection and proteins. (Long) For a long period of time, pale looking skin was considered beautiful. As modern society began to recognize the deadly toxins in the lead used in the makeup to achieve this look, new forms of foundation were developed. As history progressed, and society became more aware of health concerns, the definition of beauty was influenced as well. Another example of a beauty practice been influenced by history is hair-dye. The Greco- Roman women first introduced hair-dye in 100 B. C. They would bleach their hair using carbonized beechwood and goat fat. Women with darker hair would use fermented wine to hide their gray hairs. During the 1500s, a strawberry shade known as Venetian blonde was popular in Renaissance Italy. This color was prepared by combining twigs, barley, licorice bark and lemons. In 1909, Eugene Schueller, the founder of LOreal, produced the first commercial synthetic hair dye. This presented a more easily accessible and practical way to dye hair. (Long) History influenced the development of modern beauty practices. As changing historical times influenced the definition of beauty, products and practices that form beauty further developed to resolve modern ideals. The definition of beauty is also influenced by the current events of that specific era. To begin with, historical events influenced the definition of beauty. Depending on what was occurring at that particular point in history influenced the way women interpreted beauty, and functionally described beauty. For instance, during the Colonial Period late 16th century, many Europeans settled in America. When arriving in colonial America, European settlers changed their mode of appearance due to the new way of life. To be specific, many men and women stopped wearing wigs and certain cosmetics that symbolized the despised British Monarchy. The settlers dressed in simpler styles of hair and clothing that reflected the changing attitudes towards a more democratic society (and less class-conscious based). These clothing also enabled them to work more easily. (Sherrow) As times changed, the practical (and sometimes political) definition of beauty was influenced by the events of that time period. Another point in history that had a tremendous influence on the definition of beauty was the 1920s to the early 1930s in Harlem, NY. The Harlem Renaissance celebrated African American beauty in comparison to the constricted European standards. During this movement in the 1920s, black authors praised the African American beauty by comparing their skin colors to cinnamon, honey, ginger and other appealing things (Sherrow). The Black Pride of the 1960s reinforced these ideals in contrast to European ideals that segregated beauty from others cultures. Sherrow) This time period introduced the beauty of other ethnicities and influenced society by widening the definition of beauty. The history of the fashion industry also influences the definition of beauty. Throughout the decades, the fashion industry has had a strong opinion that has impacted societies definition of beauty. As the outlook of the fashion industry transforms, the attitude of society fluctuates as well. To illustrate, Marilyn Monroe famously became the sex symbol of the 1950s. She was a singer, model and dancer who epitomized the definition of beauty at the time (Sherrow). It is amusing that if Marilyn Monroe would walk into Weight Watchers today, no one would bat an eye- theyd sign her up (Newman). During this period in time, an hourglass figure was admired. Later, the 1990s ushered in a whole new beauty aesthetic. Kate Moss was a rule breaking waif and the face of a new age of fashion(Shulman). She was famous for her size zero- an influence to the rest of society. This contrasted to the 1980s when supermodels like Naomi Campbell had the bodies and polished stance that had been so fashionable (Shulman). The change in fashion forcefully influenced the definition of beauty. Each decade had been assigned a unique personality by the fashion world. The standards the fashion world set throughout history have had a tremendous influence on the definition of beauty. In addition to history, another classification that plays an immense role in defining beauty is cultural norms. What is considered beautiful is partly unique to specific cultures. On the reality TV show, The Price of Beauty, Jessica Simpson travels to different countries around the globe to investigate the definition of beauty defined by each culture (Albers). In these cultures there are specific standards of beauty. While in Paris, France, she spoke to women struggling with anorexia. She also interviewed women within the fashion industry about the pressures to maintain a thin silhouette (Albers). The culture pressure in Paris, one of the worldwide capitals of fashion, is one that influences beauty to be defined and dictated by the fashion community. On the other hand, while traveling in Uganda, Simpson noticed that women face a complete opposite issue. In Uganda, not only is a fuller figure more beautiful, it is a symbol of status and a source of pride for men(Albers). Before women get married there are sent to the fattening hut where they are required to consume large quantitates of food in order to gain a sufficient amount of weight. The bride they interviewed drank several jugs of milk (around 5,000 calories) a day, which led who to gain 80 pounds over the course of a couple months. (Albers) The juxtaposition between the culture in France and the culture in Uganda serves as clear evidence that cultural standards have a significant impact on the definition of beauty. What is categorized as beautiful is also defined through specific practices within individual culture. For instance, the Surma and Mursi women of Ethiopia wear large lip plates in order to stretch out their lips (Saad). The size of the plates indicates levels of status. Another example is the Kareni and Padaung women of Myanmar who use metal rings to elongate their neck and raise their chin. The elongated neck resulting of this practice is viewed as the ideal beauty. (Saad) While each one of these practices would be considered foreign and outlandish to many societies, they are a precise definition of what is considered beautiful in these unique cultures. Cultural practices clearly contribute to the overall definition of beauty. Furthermore, within a specific culture, there are distinctive descriptions of beauty. The fashion industry and the media promote very definite standards of beauty. For me, beauty demands a kind of originality that makes you stop and look again. Francis Bacon, the 16th century philosopher, put it this way: There is no excellent beauty that hath not some strangeness in the proportion. (Shulman) This quote describes the basic philosophy of the high fashion industry. The fashion industry does not define beauty through proportional, standard features- this world is interested in different, exotic and unique features that stand out. Along with the trends in the fashion industry, the media also tends to promote a specific definition of beauty. The media tends to focus on defining beauty as thin and fat free, leading to many problems revolving around negative body image. The National Eating Disorders Association states that 81% of 10-yr-olds are afraid of being fat (Brunell and Gold). The fashion industry and the media represent one portion of a culture. They are businesses and industries that dictate very specific opinions that will benefit their purpose. In comparison to the fashion industry and media, the definition of beauty amongst the average population within America differs. Contrary to the fashion worlds opinion, the average American public has an entirely different approach to beauty. Judith Langlois, professor of psychology at the University of Texas composed a study to determine facial attractiveness. College students rated a collection of photographs of faces that would be used in this study as attractive or unattractive. The factor that determined attractiveness was the symmetry and proportions of the face. The more average and positional the facial features were, the more attractive the photo was rated. (Newman) In comparison to the criteria of beauty in the high fashion industry, this is completely hypocritical. Within the population of a culture, the definition of beauty may vary. Similarly, the image the media projects are not considered beautiful across the board. The average American women is 5 feet 4 inches tall and weighs 140 pounds, according to the National eating Disorders Association. That adds to a body mass index (BMI), the standard measurement of doctors and nutritionists or assessing healthy body size, of approximately 24 when calculated using CDC standards. A normal BMI falls between 18. 5 and 24. 9, according to the CDC. (Brunell and Gold) At 5 foot 4 inches, weighing 140 pounds, many women would consider themselves beautiful. Compared to Angelina Jolie- the epitome what the media presents as beautiful- these numbers are very high. She measures at 5 feet inches tall and weighs approximately 105 pounds: Jolies BMI would be at about 16, and she would be considered underweight. Michael Cunningham, a professor and psychologist at the University of Louisville comments: Now the average voluptuous five-foot-four women may feel inadequate, especially when she compares herself to the celebrities on screen and in beauty magazines. (Brunell and Gold) What is considered average, and no less beautiful, in one part of Americas culture is vastly incongruent with another percentage of the society. Not only is the definition of beauty influenced by history, and by cultural norms, it is also influenced by universal standards. One of the universal standards is the biological influence that serves as contribution to the definition of beauty. To be specific, in all cultures, symmetric faces are interpreted as more beautiful than asymmetric faces. You can visit the Bedouins in the Middle East, the Yanomamo in the Amazon, and the Inuits in the Canadian north, and the will all agree who is beautiful based on facial features(Saad). In Langlois study, she tested babies by showing them the photos selected by college students, and then timed how long the baby would gaze at each picture. At the end of the study, she concluded that the baby was more likely to stare longer at the attractive people in the photos. What is attractive? It is a symmetrical face. People with symmetrical and averaged proportions are more pleasant to look at (Newman). Gad Saad, an evolutionary behavioral scientist, explains that due to the insufficient cognitive development of the baby, and therefore the inability to be socially influenced, this reaction is biologically programmed. People are universally, biologically inclined towards symmetrical faces. Don Symons, an anthropologist at University of California at Santa Barbara concurs: Beauty is not whimsical. Beauty has meaning. Beauty is functional. He argues that beauty is not only in the eyes of the beholder, but also in the brain circuitry of the beholder. (Newman) The definition of beauty is universally distinguished through biological instinct. Studies by psychologists Victor Johnson of New Mexico State University, and David Perrett of St. Andrews University in Scotland, show that men consistently show preference for women with larger eyes, fuller lips and a smaller nose and chin. Symons explains that all these traits symbolize youth, fertility and good health. (Newman) This form of beauty is universal due to the biological implications. Across the globe, men will biologically gravitate towards specific traits that symbolize the ability to reproduce. Beauty is health. Its a buildboard saying: I am healthy and I can pass on your genes, a psychologist says (Newman). Although biology is not everything, it does play a significant role in determining what is categorized as universally beautiful. There are also non-physical definitions of beauty that are universal throughout. The emphasis on specific forms of beauty transcends acquiring a certain look. Cleise Gomes is a native of Brazil and founder and owner of Cleise Brazilian Day Spa in Chicago. Gomes remarks, In Brazil our concept of beauty is relative to the whole body and mind. There need to be a balance. We all see people who are striking on the outside, but as they reveal themselves, our perception changes. In the long run, the inner beauty wins out since outer beauty will fade. (Brunell and Gold) Jaclyn Siegel, a girl who struggles with body image agrees: Beauty is not a surface thing. Its not physical. It is definitely more inside than out. A beautiful person is someone who is caring, kind, thinks of others and has a positive outlook on life (Brunell and Gold). Through her individual struggle with body image, and her road to recovery from bulimia, she was able to come to the conclusion that beauty is more than skin deep. Personality traits affect the way one is perceived. A perfect physiognomy can be ugly if a person exhibits arrogance Conversely, physically unattractive individuals with warm and outgoing personalities can appear beautiful (Donohoe). Gomes and Seigel both describe the importance of this form of beauty. Just as the definition of beauty is influenced by universal standards, the quest to obtain beauty is universal. The amount of money spent on beauty, beauty products and more serves as indisputable proof that the pursuit to attain beauty is universal. In the United States last year, people spent six billion on fragrances and another six billion on make-up. Hair and skin-care products drew eight million dollars each, which fingernail items alone accounted for a billion. In the mania to loose weight 20 billion was spent on diet products and services- in addition to the billions that were spent on health clubs and plastic surgery. (Newman) Around the globe, a tremendous amount of time and money is spent to achieve the desired form of beauty. Throughout the world, women search to obtain beauty. Depending on the specific culture, there might be a different focus of what is considered worthy of achieving, but the quest to obtain that beauty is universal. A world famous plastic surgeon, Dr. Ivo Pitanguy says that in Brazil, women get liposuction at 18 and breast reduction at 16-22 years old. Brazilian women prefer smaller breasts and bigger derrieres, whereas in America a breast augmentation in more common (Newman). Though the specific standard of what is considered beautiful is different between the two countries, the demand to attain the desired beauty is universal. Not only will people around the world do almost anything to obtain beauty, the cost of obtaining beauty globally has gone far beyond financial concerns. One specific example is the rise in eating disorders worldwide. Because societies around the world today, mostly influenced by the media and the fashion industry, have promoted thin as beautiful, many women feel a pressure reach a certain number on the scale in order to be classified as beautiful. In Japan anorexia was first documented in the 1960s. It now affects an estimated one in one hundred Japanese women and has spread to parts of Asia including Korea, Singapore, and Hong Kong. In the U. S. , according to Menniger Clinic in Topeka, Kansas, the proportion of females affected by eating disorders is around 5 to 10 percent. (Newman) People will harm their bodies and themselves i n order to achieve the ideal form of beauty. Another example of the acts that are committed to obtain beauty is the use of hazardous beauty products. The search for beauty could be deadly. Vermilion rouge used in the 18th century was made of a sulfur and mercury compound. Men and women used at the peril of lost teeth and inflamed gums. They sickened, sometimes died, from the lead in the white powder they dusted on their faces. In the 19th century women wore whalebone and steel corsets that made it difficult to breathe, a precursor of the stomach-smooshing Playtex Living Girdle. (Newman) Throughout history, people took part in beauty practices that would cause disease, illness and suffering in order to conform to a desired fashion of beauty. Throughout history, and across the world, there is an intense desire to be beautiful. The ultimate description of beauty is highly intricate and immensely complicated to describe. This definition has been in the making for hundreds of years and is influenced by history, by cultural norms and by universal standards that each has a unique affect on the definition. One person, one thing, or one place does not define beauty. As she watched the women disappear around the corner, she realized that she too was beautiful.

Analysing the cause and effect of Urban Riots

Analysing the cause and effect of Urban Riots Riots are civil disorders that are characterized by intense violence against people in authority or property. Since it is a herd behavior occurrence, many people take part and this leads to civil unrest. They usually occur as a result of a perceived grievance which people feel has not been adequately dealt with. The are many reasons as to why riots occur including; poor living conditions, oppression by the government, high taxation, ethnic diversity, religion or differing views of a sporting activity. Mostly, riots are accompanied by violence, vandalism and destruction of both private and public property. This can also be directed to a certain specific targets according to grievances on peoples minds (Gilje 2). In the United States of America, many riots took place during the Civil War and which saw many lives lost. As years progressed, new types of riots emerged as well as their cause. In 1960s, a new form of riots called urban Riots came in to being. In 1967 for instance, more than 120 cities in the U.S suffered more than 160 riots. The most notable among urban riots was the Newark riots of 1967 and Stonewall Riots of 1969; each of which had various reasons for its outbreak. In general though, between 1964 and 1971, there were about 752 spontaneous riots especially in black communities occurring in 316 American cities. Many of these conflagrations were however exaggerated by the media with only the major ones as already discussed having severe magnitude in terms of violence, arson and property damage. In exploring the various causes of such urban riots, many social scientists have advanced different theories. Among these reasons are racial grievances and competition for jobs in the inter-ethnic setups of communities. Further, in a search for answers as to why cities could experience racial riots of varying magnitudes, scholars usually focus on broad trends. Mainly they pinpoint the high unemployment rate amongst the blacks which they relate to cities or the whole nation as a whole. But it is evident that they ignore the local factors which too may provide more insight in to the causes of urban riots. This therefore led to a number of analysts confining their research on the event itself and the surrounding circumstances such as police mobilization (Gilje, 10). Based on this concept, it is important to find the effect of police presence and its effect on the magnitude or severity of an urban riot. The urban riots of 1960s were somewhat escalated by the intervention of the federal government. But this should not be misconstrued to imply that local and state place agents did not play any part. Eventually, upon studying a number of riots that occurred, it emerged that police response has a major impact on the nature of a riot. The timing so as to ensure there is not under-response or over-response is vital as police presence will determine the end result. It is also evident from history that many of American urban riots had a connection with racism. In many occurrences, such riots were initiated by the whites and were directed to blacks. This trend however changed in the 1960s when the roles were reversed and blacks found themselves initiating urban riots. The most notable of these include the Rochester race riot of 1964. This riot took place in Rochester, New York on Friday evening of July, 24th when the Rochester Police Department tried to arrest a nineteen year old intoxicated black on a street. The police after having been notified of him responded with a dog and since rumors of police brutality had spread quickly, an angry crowd formed on Joseph Avenue. This was followed by violence that lasted for three days leaving a trail of destruction. Statistics finally recorded 4 dead, 35 injured, 1000 arrested and 204 store houses looted. It later emerged that the local, especially the good kids had initiated the riot which the adults joined in later. This was further fueled by the fact that many African-Americans had low pay and low skill jobs and they used violence to cast their personal grievances (Wasow, web). The Philadelphia race riot of 1964 was in similar manner black-initiated. From August 28th to 30th, the black neighborhood of North Philadelphia erupted as they accused police of brutality. The Philadelphia Police Department had over the years tried to improve it relationship with the black majority, 400,000 in number, by patrolling the city in twos; one black and one white officer. Unfortunately, one black woman, Odessa Bradford, engaged a patrol squad in to an argument after her car had stalled on Columbia Avenue. As the two police officers attempted to force her to remove the car, a crowd formed and came to the rescue of Odessa. Due to crowd herding mentality, rumors started to flow that white police officers had mistreated a pregnant woman and thus violence ensued. The police response took a turn and instead of confronting rioters, they retreated and left the area. Final statistics showed 341 injured, 774 arrested and 225 stores looted or damaged in the course of three days. The urban riots left the North Philadelphia city without many vital businesses as many businessmen never returned. All in all, there were other urban riots which started due to racial segregation circumstances through out the 1960s. Their cause and eventual destruction of both property and live had similar characteristics as the already discussed ones. These included: Watts Riots in 1965, Hough Riots in 1966, Racial Tension in Omaha in 1966, Newark riots in 1967, Chicago Riots in 1968 and the 1969 North 24th Street Riot in Omaha. One thing that made these urban riots among many others to stand out is the large number of participants as well as the effects they finally caused. Statistics however show that despite the escalation of black-initiated urban riots in the 1960s, the number of occurrences decline at the turn of the decade. Government commissions that were formed to seek the cause of the riots indicated that majority of riots in the 1960s and early 1970s were due to racial grievances and deprivation. A commission that presented the Kerner Commission Report indicated that these riots were an aftermath of prior white discrimination of blacks and hence was unavoidable. Between 1970s and 1980s urban riots continued in many American cities albeit marked with less and less casualties like in the sixties. However, this did not remain for long since in 1992, a significant form of riots broke out in Los Angeles. These riots which started on April 29, were as a result of a beating Rodney King, a motorist, received in the hand s of Los Angeles Police Department officers. The prelude can be traced back to March 3, when King and two passengers were driving on Foothill highway. Upon being stopped they refused but chose to speed of under what transpired to be a high speed chase by traffic cops. The presence of five LAPD officers made the case worse since they had beaten King with batons on his arrest. This was in contrary to a video shot in this event which showed that LAPD officers continued to beat King instead of cuffing him as was in law. The also accused him of having been under influence of PCP which later test proved untrue. The video which had been shot by a neighbor as he witnessed the beatings became a focal point in the media after presentation in the court case. The five LAPD officers were charged with assault and use of excessive force. This was not however to be as some influential whites doctored the case as it was about to come for deliberation. They then proceeded to acquit the LAPD officer of assault and use of force but one. This ruling as it was heavily publicized by the media drew mixed reaction even from the president. After the verdicts, riots began in Los Angeles and continued to escalate despite the presence of National Guard, the Army and the Marines. Over the next few days numerous acts of violence and looting were recorded as well as personal engagement among the law enforcers, the blacks and the whites. They included beatings received by Reginald Denny, a white truck driver by blacks an incident recorded live on television. This was followed by Fidel Lopez severe beating and possible killing of him though he was rescued. The second and third day too were marked by widespread riots and massive destruction even after law enforcers numbers were increased. Many important American figures were also drawn in to numerous debates as well as begging for end of hostilities. Order started to flow back from the fourth day but not after massive destruction in the city had occurred. The final statistics recorded 53 dead, 2,000 injured, material loss of approximately $ 1 billion, and over 3,000 arson cases destroying more than one thousand buildings. The factors that led to Los Angeles riots were cited including a fatal shooting of a black teenager by a Korean American. Others included cultural differences, high unemployment among the residents of Central Los Angeles due to recession and poverty. Sociologists on their part cited disparity in economic growth as a cause which led to powerlessness and frustration among urban dwellers. In conclusion, riots have continued to wreck havoc on the society and the general order of things. From the many instances that have been recorded in history it is clear that they have causes and if dealt with properly, urban riots can be avoided. The government must therefore put in measures to ensure there is equal employment opportunity for all people regardless of their racial background. Social institutions which promote unity and shun segregation also need to be encouraged in order to avoid urban riots (Dreier 52).

Mickey Mantle Essay -- essays research papers

Mickey Mantle was a stupendous ball player. He was great at playing baseball because he practiced a lot. His whole baseball career, is the career that I dream of having. He played in 12 of his 18 career years in the World Serieswith the Yankee's. When Mickey Mantle was growing up, he was small, and spindly. His nickname was "little Mick" when he was a child. Mantle went to Commerce grade school. When Mickey was little, he always thought about baseball (Falkner 21). His parents bought baseball gloves for him, but his mom made his uniforms. When he started playing he always was a good hitter from the right side. He was a little bit scared of the ball. Whenever the ball curved, he dropped so it would not hit him. His Dad was one that taught him how to switchhit. His dad and grandpa always got some games going after school with some of Mickey's friends (Falkner 22).The people who taught him how to play the game were his father and grandfather. He practiced with them for at least 2 hours a day (Falkner 23). Mickey played sports and games whenever he could. He just could not stay away from the game of baseball. The one sport that Mickey did not want anything to do with was swimming. The reason why was because swimming almost cost him hislifeOnce him and his friends were swimming in a river,and they were not supposed to, and a lady came and seen them, and his friends left him on a raft and he could not swim, and he fell off and almost drowned.Mickey did not like sch...

Minorities Fall Victim to Achievement Gap

The studies do not Ill and give proof that there Is a problem occurring in American schools. A solution needs to be derived fast: and, a senior admissions officer at Harvard university believes he has a simple-?yet effective-?method to solve the problem. In the essay, â€Å"Paying Kids to Study? It's Not a Crazy Idea,† David L Evans believes we should give incentives to minorities in order to motivate them to strive for academic greatness.First, Evans explains that â€Å"Tiger Woods and Serene and Venus Williams† are at the top of their game and are minorities In their particular sport(11 Evans states that these athletes give minorities' a role model to look up to and a reason to feel good about being different. Tiger Woods and Serene and Venus Williams give students a reason to be leave in hard work and that perseverance pays off, explains Evans. When Woods and the Williams sisters win a match or tournament, they are rewarded with a trophy and/or money. Evans calls the se Incentives, which reward them for their hard work and dedication.Therefore, Evans believes that all minority students should receive incentives Like their favorite major athletes. Evans explains that we should do the same by giving â€Å"material rewards or monetary inducements to minority students as motivation to do well academically' (11). Further, Evans explains that this might seem like a crazy idea but that it is a very thought out plan. Evans explains that some of the most distinguished colleges have awarded student for their achievement. In the same manner, Evans explains that there are Insurance businesses that have discounts for students with good grade.Evans believes molesters should receive such incentives through individuals or groups that would give a couple hundred dollars away to students that have greatly improved their grades. Instead of money Evans says that students may receive â€Å"clothing, sneakers, invitations to fancy dinners tit famous personalities o r chauffeur-driven limousines to proms could serve the same purpose† (11). To continue, Evans explains that even though there were many obstacles for Tiger and the Williams sisters to overcome, they still managed to Decode â€Å"emailed role models In a society Tanat Is In constant pursuit AT material rewards† (11).To conclude, Evans states that we should recognize academic success and reward students with more than Just the usual â€Å"pat on the back† (11). Even though, Evans' idea of giving rewards-?material or monetary-?to minority students is a great idea on paper, but fails when faced with the real world. Evans fails to see the consequences that could arise and he fails to realize that this will not work for every minority student, for everyone is different.Evans should have thought how peer pressure from â€Å"Acting White† really affects students, how moral values and material rewards do not mix, how damages intrinsic values and will not increase s elf-esteem, and how professional athletes as role models can increase academic difficulties. Furthermore, the achievement gap is the gap between minority students and non- minority students academically. As stated above, the achievement gap can be seen wrought â€Å"test scores, grades, drop-out and graduation rates, and almost every relevant indicator of academic performance† (Encourage).Although there are probably hundreds of contributing factors, some are family problems, low-incomes, social problems, and learning problems. Many researchers, reformers, and educators often use the achievement gap compare the gap between White and African-American students, it is also use to compare the gap between Latino students. The achievement gap is also caused by students who have certain disadvantages and attend schools that are unable to understand their particular needs and only hurt hem even more.Another example that shows the achievement gap are the results of the 2006 California Standards Test, which showed that 60. 3% of Whites, 29% of African-Americans, and 27. 4% of Hispanics scored proficiency in English-Language Arts and 53% of Whites, 24. 9% of African-Americans, and 29. 8% of Hispanics scored proficiency in Math (O'Connell). Peer pressure in school can affect many aspects of a students' life and among them is academic achievement. As explained by Evans, â€Å"Acting White† is when an African-American student â€Å"stand[s] apart from the crowd† (11). â€Å"Acting White† by Roland G.Fryer, an assistant professor of economics, explains that acting white can be characterized by the â€Å"academically inclined, but allegedly snobbish, minority students who were shunned by their peers† (53). What Fryer means that they are the minority students who excel in school-?often the richer-?and are separated from their peers because of all the pressure they receive for acting white. To be precise, Fryer explains that for this essay, act ing white refers to â€Å"a set of social interactions in which minority adolescents who get good grades in school enjoy less social popularity than white students who do well academically' (53).Further, acting white â€Å"is most prevalent in racially integrated public schools,† where there is a greater ratio of white to black (54). Fryer explains that there are many variations to the definition of what acting white is, but all show a similar â€Å"reference to situations where some minority adolescents ridicule their minority peers for engaging in behaviors perceived to be characteristics of whites† (54). Fryer also says that since â€Å"reading a book or getting good grades might be perceived as acting white that makes the topic a matter of national concern† (54).As black students Gaps increase above a 3. Level, â€Å"they tend to have fewer and fewer friends† (56). Fryer found through his research that black students did not have the peer pressure of acting white when attending an all Dalai cocoons, out 010 when attending an Integrated cocoons. He also salsa TN African American students that went to a private school had more friends and more â€Å"cross-ethnic friendships† (58). In the essay, â€Å"The Significance of Race in the Racial Gap in Academic Achievement,† Pedro A.Encourage, a professor in the graduate School of Education at Harvard University, and Anti Oakum, a doctoral student in Sociology at he University of Pennsylvania, explain that even when a minority student makes the particular requirements for advanced placement(AP), they will often decline the offer because they do not want to lose their friends. Further, Encourage and Oakum explain that this is also true will other things such as â€Å"the school band, newspaper, debating team or honors society. Acting white plays a huge role in a students' peer group; they want to be in the popular group or the sports group and despite their parents words o f advice they would rather listen to their peer group, which could lead them the wrong way. While Evans goes about his idea of giving rewards to minority students who show improvement in their academics, he makes the assumption that all minorities will participate. Although, incentives might sound good to an African- American student or Hispanic student, it still does not erase the peer pressure students feel from their peers when they excel in school.The feeling of being accepted in a group is greater than that of an education. In the essay â€Å"Money for Mortality [sic],† Mary Argues, a freelance writer living in Reading, PA, explains that rewards can damage the â€Å"virtues of honesty and kindness. â€Å"A reward is a gift; any gift should at least be met with the presumption of genuine gratitude on the part of the giver,† explains Argues. To show how our society believes a good deed must end with a reward, Argues tells a story about a young boy who found an enve lope full of money and returned it to its right-full owner.When the boys school heard of his great deed, they persisted to say that some sort of reward was required and that they $3 he received was cheap. To make things worse, the school presented him with a $1 50 savings bond. Argues believes that his mined the boys sense of self-gratitude. When Argues' son came to her asking for $10 for every A she said, [d]owing well is its own reward. The A Just confirms that. † Argues makes clear that she does praise her son but Just not with money or other incentives.She explains that it is â€Å"not meant to reward or elicit future achievement, but rather to express my genuine delight in the satisfaction he feels at having done his best. † Argues' main point is that rewards cause us to lose sight of our virtues, leaving us â€Å"incapable of feeling a genuine sense of inner peace. † In the essay, Studies Find Reward Often No Motivator,† Life Cohn, a Cambridge, MA wri ter, explains that many people believe that â€Å"rewards promote better performance. Cohn explains that psychologists have â€Å"been finding that rewards can lower performance levels, especially when the performance involves creativity. † â€Å"[T]he sense that something is worth doing for its own sake†¦ Declines when someone is rewarded for doing it† (Cohn). Cohn said that when he studied a group of young children that were rewarded for drawing, they became less likely to draw by themselves than that of children who would draw because they enjoyed it.Cohn explains two reasons why rewards hurt performance: first, â€Å"rewards encourage people to focus narrowly on a task, to do it as quickly as possible and to take few risks;† second, â€Å"people come to see themselves as being controlled by the reward. † Evans fails to realize the difference Detente reward Ana award. A reward Is â€Å"something glen In return Tort something done† and an a ward is â€Å"given after being Judged. † Evans confuses the two when he is explaining how major athletes receive rewards when they win a game or a math or a tournament.Argues and Cohn both see the affects rewards-?creativity and titivation-?can have on a child or a student. Argues sees it through every day things such as reading the newspaper; whereas, Cohn sees it through things such as research. Rewards can ultimately damage intrinsic values and will not increase self-esteem. Steven Rises, a professor of psychology at Ohio State University, explains intrinsic motivations as â€Å"doing something because you want to† and extrinsic motivations as â€Å"seeking a reward. Rises explains that money can be an effective motivator and so can grades, and that everyone is different, therefore, people will have different ways f being motivated. Rises continues to say that â€Å"some people are very curious and enjoy spending a great deal of time learning on their own,† but there are also people that â€Å"don't enjoy learning for its own sake. † Rises explains that many people might not be intrinsically motivated because of the â€Å"negative feelings they cause, such as performance anxiety. In the article â€Å"The Feel-good Trap,† Richard Westbound believes that a students' ability to learn does not deal with rewards or acting white, but that they have no â€Å"confidence in their ability to learn† (12). Westbound explains hat the self-esteem movement believes that â€Å"[r]gassing their self-esteem would boost their achievement† (12). Westbound disagrees with the self-esteem movement and says â€Å"[s]elf-esteem has little or no impact on academic achievement, or on drug use, violence or any other serious problems (12). Even if schools were to raise students' self-esteem levels they would be unable to â€Å"manage humiliation or maturity' (12).Westbound believes â€Å"too much unconditional praise produces not s elf-confidence but cynicism about adults and doubts about themselves† (12). Further, Westbound explains that while focusing on self-esteem â€Å"teachers dumb down curricula, inflate grades and avoid discussing real academic problems with parents† (13). Westbound believes schools need to drop the idea of self-esteem completely and â€Å"should instead set high expectations of children, cultivate in them a wide range of competencies, coping strategies and ethical sensibilities, and show them the value of these abilities† (13).Adults need â€Å"to spend more time with children† and not take the â€Å"short cut† by constantly praising children and giving them their â€Å"time and attention† that they so need and deserve. (13). Westbound believes parents should be more involved in school and help out more at home, in order to fix the achievement gap. On the opposite side, Evans believes rewards will motivate minority students because they will no t themselves and that self-esteem issues will be resolved be rewards and improved academics.In comparison, Rises believes that rewards work only for certain people; different people are motivated by different things. Also, Westbound believes that no reward or motivator will ever affect a students' self-esteem because the issue is set deep within the brain, which rewards will fail to fix. In the essay, â€Å"The Significance of Race in the Racial Gap in Academic Achievement,† Encourage and Oakum see how looking up to major league athletes as role models can affect a students' attitudes towards school.Encourage and Oakum explain that â€Å"many young people believe that they have a greater chance of Decoding a mainly pal tinplate or rap artist than an engineer, doctor or steward programmer. † Even though, the odds of being in a major league sport are very few, students will still set their lives primarily on sports not leaving adequate time for academics. Differing from Encourage and Oakum, Evans believes professional athletes would become the basis of all role models for minority students. Evans fails to realize that this could have major affects on a students' academic achievement.To conclude, Evans makes a whole bunch of assumptions that were not supported by proper evidence. â€Å"Acting White† is much more than standing out in the crowd; it is about minority students feeling socially obligated to decline sports or academics, so they will not lose the friends they have. When a child is growing up they are learning at a rapid pace and then there moral values are screwed up by material rewards, Hereford learning to become dependent on a reward in order to do something; once a student receives a reward for a good grade, they will not have the same feelings toward school as before.Rewards can damage intrinsic values by giving people the perception that they can only complete or do something if they are rewarded for their efforts; further, se lf-esteem is not something that can be fixed by rewards, due to the fact that is requires much more. Lastly, professional athletes are not role models worth looking up to because they can only twist and tangle students attitudes awards school; they feel they have a better chance of making it in a major league sport than in any academically required profession.

Ada-approved Fluoride Toothpaste

Toothpaste is a paste or gel dentifrice used with a toothbrush as an accessory to clean and maintain the aesthetics and health of teeth. Toothpaste is used to promote oral hygiene: it serves as an abrasive that aids in removing the dental plaque and food from the teeth, assists in suppressing halitosis, and delivers active ingredients (mainly fluoride) to help prevent tooth and gum disease (gingivitis). [1] Most of the cleaning is achieved by the mechanical action of the toothbrush, and not by the toothpaste.Salt and sodium bicarbonate (baking soda) are among materials that can be substituted for commercial toothpaste. Toothpaste is not intended to be swallowed, but is generally not very harmful if accidentally swallowed in small amounts. Ingredients In addition to 20-42% water, toothpastes are derived from a variety of components, including three main ones: abrasives, fluoride, and detergents. Abrasives Abrasives constitute at least 50% of a typical toothpaste. These insoluble parti cles help remove plaque from the teeth.The removal of plaque and calculus helps minimize cavities and periodontal disease. [citation needed] Representative abrasives include particles of aluminum hydroxide (Al(OH)3), calcium carbonate (CaCO3), various calcium hydrogen phosphates, various silicas and zeolites, and hydroxyapatite (Ca5(PO4)3OH). Abrasives, like the dental polishing agents used in dentists' offices, also cause a small amount of enamel erosion which is termed â€Å"polishing† action. Some brands contain powdered white mica, which acts as a mild abrasive, and also adds a cosmetically pleasing glittery shimmer to the paste.The polishing of teeth removes stains from tooth surfaces, but has not been shown to improve dental health over and above the effects of the removal of plaque and calculus. [2] Fluorides Fluoride in various forms is the most popular active ingredient in toothpaste to prevent cavities. Fluoride occurs in small amounts in plants, animals, and some n atural water sources. The additional fluoride in toothpaste has beneficial effects on the formation of dental enamel and bones. Sodium luoride (NaF) is the most common source of fluoride, but stannous fluoride (SnF2), olaflur (an organic salt of fluoride), and sodium monofluorophosphate (Na2PO3F) are also used. Stannous fluoride has been shown to be more effective than sodium fluoride in reducing the incidence of dental caries[3] and controlling gingivitis. [4] Much of the toothpaste sold in the United States has 1000 to 1100 parts per million fluoride. In European countries, such as the UK or Greece, the fluoride content is often higher; a NaF of 0. 312% w/w (1,450 ppm fluoride) is not uncommon.Surfactants Many, although not all, toothpastes contain sodium lauryl sulfate (SLS) or related surfactants (detergents). SLS is found in many other personal care products, as well, such as shampoo, and is mainly a foaming agent, which enables uniform distribution of toothpaste, improving its cleansing power. [2] Other components Antibacterial agents Triclosan, an antibacterial agent, is a common toothpaste ingredient in the United Kingdom. Triclosan or zinc chloride prevent gingivitis and, according to the American Dental Association, helps reduce tartar and bad breath. 1][5] A 2006 review of clinical research concluded there was evidence for the effectiveness of 0. 30% triclosan in reducing plaque and gingivitis. [6] Flavorants Toothpaste comes in a variety of colors, and flavors intended to encourage use of the product. Three most common flavorants are peppermint, spearmint, and wintergreen. Toothpaste flavored with peppermint-anise oil is popular in the Mediterranean region. These flavors are provided by the respective oils, e. g. peppermint oil. [2] More exotic flavors include anise, apricot, bubblegum, cinnamon, fennel, lavender, neem, ginger, vanilla, lemon, orange, and pine.More unusual flavors have been used, e. g. peanut butter, iced tea, and even whisky. Unfl avored toothpastes exist. Remineralizers Hydroxyapatite nanocrystals and calcium phosphate are included in some formulations for remineralization,[7] i. e. the reformation of enamel. Miscellaneous components Agents are added to suppress the tendency of toothpaste to dry into a powder. Included are various sugar alcohols, such as glycerol, sorbitol, or xylitol, or related derivatives, such as 1,2-propylene glycol and polyethyleneglycol. [8] Strontium chloride or potassium nitrate is included in some toothpastes to reduce sensitivity.Sodium polyphosphate is added to minimize the formation of tartar. Safety Fluoride Although water fluoridation has been praised as one of the top medical achievements of the 20th century,[9] fluoride-containing toothpaste can be acutely toxic if swallowed in large amounts. [10][11] The risk of using fluoride is low enough that the use of ‘full-strength' toothpaste (1350-1500ppm fluoride) is advised for all ages (although smaller volumes are used for young children; a ‘smear' of toothpaste until three years old). [11] A major concern of dental fluorosis is for children under 12 months ingesting excessive fluoride through toothpaste.Several non-fluoride toothpastes are available. Diethylene glycol The inclusion of sweet-tasting but toxic diethylene glycol in Chinese-made toothpaste led to a several nation, multiple brand toothpaste recall in 2007. [12] The world outcry made Chinese officials ban the practice of using diethylene glycol in toothpaste. [13] Miscellaneous issues and debates With the exception of toothpaste intended to be used on pets such as dogs and cats, and toothpaste used by astronauts, most toothpaste is not intended to be swallowed, and doing so may cause nausea or diarrhea. Tartar fighting' toothpastes have been debated. [14] Case reports of plasma cell gingivitis have been reported with the use of herbal toothpaste containing cinnamon. [15] SLS has been proposed to increase the frequency of mouth ulcer s in some people, as it can dry out the protective layer of oral tissues, causing the underlying tissues to become damaged. [16] Alteration of taste perception After using toothpaste, orange juice and other juices have an unpleasant taste. This effect is attributed to products of the chemical reaction between stannous fluoride in toothpaste and the acetic acid in the juices. 17] Sodium lauryl sulfate alters taste perception. It can break down phospholipids that inhibit taste receptors for sweetness, giving food a bitter taste. In contrast, apples are known to taste more pleasant after using toothpaste. [18] Distinguishing between the hypotheses that the bitter taste of orange juice results from stannous fluoride or from sodium lauryl sulfate is still an unresolved issue and it is thought that the menthol added for flavor may also take part in the alteration of taste perception when binding to lingual cold receptors.Other types of toothpaste Whitening toothpastes Many toothpastes mak e whitening claims. Some of these toothpastes contain peroxide, the same ingredient found in tooth bleaching gels. The abrasive in these toothpaste remove the stains, not the peroxide. [19] Whitening toothpaste cannot alter the natural color of teeth or reverse discoloration by penetrating surface stains or decay. To remove surface stains, whitening toothpaste may include abrasives to gently polish the teeth, and/or additives such as sodium tripolyphosphate to break down or dissolve stains.When used twice a day, whitening toothpaste typically takes two to four weeks to make teeth appear more white. Whitening toothpaste is generally safe for daily use, but excessive use might damage tooth enamel. Teeth whitening gels represent an alternative. [20] Herbal and â€Å"natural† toothpastes Many consumers have started to switch over to natural toothpastes to avoid synthetic and artificial flavors that are commonly found in regular toothpastes. [21] Due to the increased demand of nat ural products, most of the toothpaste manufacturers now produce herbal toothpastes.This type of toothpaste does not contain dyes or artificial flavors. Many herbal toothpastes do not contain fluoride or sodium lauryl sulfate. The ingredients found in natural toothpastes vary widely but often include baking soda, aloe, eucalyptus oil, myrrh, plant extract (strawberry extract), and essential oils. In addition to the commercially available products, it is possible to make one's own toothpaste using similar ingredients. History Early toothpastes The Greeks, and then the Romans, improved the recipes for toothpaste by adding abrasives such as crushed bones and oyster shells. 22] In the 9th century, the Persian musician and fashion designer Ziryab invented a type of toothpaste, which he popularized throughout Islamic Spain. [23] The exact ingredients of this toothpaste are unknown,[24] but it was reported to have been both â€Å"functional and pleasant to taste†. [23] It is not know n whether these early toothpastes were used alone, were to be rubbed onto the teeth with rags, or were to be used with early toothbrushes, such as neem-tree twigs and miswak. Toothpastes or powders came into general use in the 19th century. Tooth powderTooth powders for use with toothbrushes came into general use in the 19th century in Britain. Most were homemade, with chalk, pulverized brick, or salt as ingredients. A 1866 Home Encyclopedia recommended pulverized charcoal, and cautioned that many patented tooth powders that were commercially marketed did more harm than good. Arm & Hammer marketed a baking soda-based toothpowder in the United States until approximately 2000, and Colgate currently markets toothpowder in India and other countries. Modern toothpaste An 18th century American and British toothpaste recipe called for burnt bread.Another formula around this time called for dragon's blood (a resin), cinnamon, and burnt alum. [25] By 1900, a paste made of hydrogen peroxide a nd baking soda was recommended for use with toothbrushes. Pre-mixed toothpastes were first marketed in the 19th century, but did not surpass the popularity of tooth-powder until World War I. In 1892, Doctor Washington Sheffield of London manufactured toothpaste into a collapsible tube, Dr. Sheffield's Creme Dentifrice. He had the idea after his son traveled to Paris and saw painters using paint from tubes.In York in 1896, Colgate & Company Dental Cream was packaged in collapsible tubes imitating Sheffield. The original collapsible toothpaste tubes were made of lead. [26][27] Fluoride was first added to toothpastes in the 1890s. â€Å"Tanagra†, containing calcium fluoride as the active ingredient, was sold by Karl F. Toellner Company, of Bremen, Germany, based upon the early work of chemist Albert Deninger. [28] An analogous invention by Roy Cross, of Kansas City, Mo. , was initially criticized by the American Dental Association (ADA) in 1937. Fluoride toothpastes developed in the 1950s received the ADA's approval.To develop the first ADA-approved fluoride toothpaste, Procter & Gamble started a research program in the early 1940s. In 1950, Procter & Gamble developed a joint research project team headed by Dr. Joseph Muhler at Indiana University to study new toothpaste with fluoride. In 1955, Procter & Gamble's Crest launched its first clinically proven fluoride-containing toothpaste. On August 1, 1960, the ADA reported that â€Å"Crest has been shown to be an effective anticavity (decay preventative) dentifrice that can be of significant value when used in a conscientiously applied program of oral hygiene and regular professional care. The amount of fluoride in toothpastes varies from country to country. In 2006 BioRepair appeared in Europe with the first toothpaste containing synthetic hydroxylapatite as an alternative to fluoride for the remineralization and reparation of tooth enamel. The â€Å"biomimetic hydroxylapatite† is intended to protec t the teeth by creating a new layer of synthetic enamel around the tooth instead of hardening the existing layer with fluoride that chemically changes it into fluorapatite. [29] In June 2007, the US Food and Drug Administration and similar agencies inPanama, Puerto Rico and Australia advised consumers to avoid certain brands of toothpaste manufactured in China after some were found to contain the poisonous diethylene glycol, also called diglycol or labeled as â€Å"DEG† on the tube. [30] Striped toothpaste Striped toothpaste was invented by a New Yorker named Leonard Lawrence Marraffino in 1955. The patent (US patent 2,789,731, issued 1957) was subsequently sold to Unilever, who marketed the novelty under the ‘Stripe' brand-name in the early 1960s. This was followed by the introduction of the ‘Signal' brand in Europe in 1965 (UK patent 813,514).Although ‘Stripe' was initially very successful, it never again achieved the 8% market share that it cornered durin g its second year. Marraffino's design, which remains in use for single-color stripes, is simple. The main material, usually white, sits at the crimp end of the toothpaste tube and makes up most of its bulk. A thin pipe, through which that carrier material will flow, descends from the nozzle to it. The stripe-material (this was red in ‘Stripe') fills the gap between the carrier material and the top of the tube. The two materials are not in separate compartments.The two materials are sufficiently viscous that they will not mix. When pressure is applied to the toothpaste tube, the main material squeezes down the thin pipe to the nozzle. Simultaneously, the pressure applied to the main material causes pressure to be forwarded to the stripe material, which then issues out through small holes (in the side of the pipe) onto the main carrier material as it is passing those holes. In 1990 Colgate-Palmolive was granted a patent (USPTO 4,969,767) for two differently colored stripes. In this scheme, the inner pipe has a cone-shaped plastic guard around it, and about half way up its length.Between the guard and the nozzle-end of the tube is then a space for the material for one color, which then issues out of holes in the pipe. On the other side of the guard is space for second stripe-material, which has its own set of holes. Striped toothpaste should not be confused with layered toothpaste. Layered toothpaste requires a multi-chamber design (e. g. USPTO 5,020,694), in which two or three layers then extrude out of the nozzle. This scheme, like that of pump dispensers (USPTO 4,461,403), is more complicated (and thus, more expensive to manufacture) than either the Marraffino design or the Colgate design.

Role of Ngos in Rural Developement Essays

Role of Ngos in Rural Developement Essays Role of Ngos in Rural Developement Essay Role of Ngos in Rural Developement Essay Role of NGOs in Rural Development Shridhar Hegde, 2nd year MBA MSRIT Bangalore Kishan B. V , 2nd year MBA MSRIT Bangalore Abstract India has been a land of villages and the Government of India has been Implementing numerous rural development programmes for the upliftment of rural Communities. Non-government organizations with their advantage of non- rigid, locality specific, felt need-based, beneficiary oriented and committed nature of service have established multitude of roles which can effect rural development. A number of NGOs have been playing a vital role in rural community development, besides government interventions. It focuses on the process of rural development in India and analyses the role of NGOs in the lives of rural Communities . Realizing that the government alone was not able to meet the challenges of the massive enormous tasks in the process of rural development, the non-profit, voluntary and non-governmental organizations had to be involved in different phases and activities at the global, regional and local levels. Thus, in later phases, both the GOs and NGOs have been actively involved in transforming the lives of the rural poor. Literature review Dip kapoor (2005)The number, size, density and complexity of linkages among international NGOs have grown dramatically in the Last three decades. Sharadchandra lele(2002)Accessing interaction between the political and administrative inc of government and the influence of semi autonomous actors such as donors ,NGOs and the academics to identify the potential route towards more decentralization in the future. Shenggen fan,P. B. R hazel sukhadeo thorat(1999)Additional irrigation investment has the third largest impact on growth in agriculture productivity but only a small impact on rural poverty reduction. Montek singh ahluwalia (2007)There is a statistically significant inverse relationship between rural poverty and agricultural performance for india suggesting that agricultural growth by itself tends to reduce the incident of poverty Keywords: NGO, Government, Rural development, initiatives and activities. Introduction India lives in its villages Mahatma Gandhi. Literally and from the social, economic and political perspectives the statement is valid even today. Rural India is real India. Over Seventy-six per cent of the total population of India lives in villages. Rural India still contributes about half of the national income. Agriculture is the basic occupation which sustains the rural areas. Rural development is not simply an economic proposition; it has social, psychological and cultural dimensions as well. It is a multi-dimensional as well as multi-directional concept. People in rural areas should have the same quality of life as is enjoyed by people living in sub urban and urban areas Rural Development in India is an important segment of economic development. Although, thousands of crores of rupees have been spent on rural development during the last 57 years, the problem is as grave as it was. Yet, the importance of this subject has enhanced. Governments alone are not able to achieve the goals and reach the target groups of rural development programmes effectively, in spite of planned development strategies. It could be attributed to the decentralized, centralization of approaches and methods, rigid and bureaucratic administrative structures. And uniform, universal and project-centred strategies. On the other hand, NGOs are perceived to be more capable of transforming the lives of rural poor by adopting decentralized and flexible methods and approaches combined with people-centred strategies that elucidate direct, dynamic and collective Participation of the rural community. The decentralized structure of NGOs that places Rural people at the core, induces the process of empowerment and sustainability from within the rural community. As a result of this, the rural people themselves bring about the overall development in and around their community and locality. The success of the Rural Development depends upon the active participation and willing co-operation of the rural people through self-help groups. Why NGO’s are needed- â€Å"Think Large and Act Small: In recognition of Indias high population, the NGO is structured to help government in initiating programs and processes that will benefit Indians teeming population in different facets, and also to help the less privileged through various skill acquisition programs. The commitment is also towards proper information dissemination as well as promotion of developmental initiatives as a way of responding to needs of the marginalized and insufficiently represented segments of the nation. Relentless assistance to the disadvantaged communities in India is also the prime objective of India NGO. This is achieved through varieties of programs that address specific areas of need in those communities. The ability of the NGO to achieve all these is because of their grassroots operational strategies that help them in having insight into the priorities in the needs of these communities especially the rural and underdeveloped communities that tend to receive less attention from the government. They also address issues such as Child Labour, good health promotion, promotion of better living, women empowerment and vocational programs for the physically impaired as well as less privileged people. These are issues that government may not be able to address sufficiently at the grassroots levels because of the large population, but the NGO India is well knowledgeable and insightful into these issues and have the right approaches for proffering substantial solution to them. Formal education is also a priority in NGO schemes. The India government has made formal education compulsory for children from age 6 to 14. However, there is no proper provision and programs to ensure that this mandate is fully implemented in every part of India; the rural communities seem to be entirely forgotten. Besides, poverty is also a big challenge for those who want to realize their full potential through education. But the good news is that the NGO have well structured programs put in place for promotion of education even at the grassroots level. Activities undertaken by NGO’s Activities broadly cover the following: i. Development of natural resources; ii. Development and maintenance of physical infrastructure; iii. Poverty Alleviation Programs (PAPs) initiated towards social justice; and iv. Development of adequate, timely and quality services. The main areas covered under these activities are as follows: i. Programs for Productive Activities – agriculture, animal husbandry, poultry, fishery, small-scale industries including food processing, cottage industries, fuel and fodder and irrigation; ii. Land Development Programs – land reforms, soil conservation, minor irrigation, water management and watershed development, wasteland development, social forestry and grazing lands; iii. Education and Cultural Activities – primary schools, adult education, technical education and libraries; iv. Social Welfare – welfare of the women and child development, family welfare, care of disabled and mentally retarded; v. Provisions of Civic Amenities – drinking water, rural electrification, nonconventional sources of energy, rural roads, bridges, culverts, waterways, sanitation, rural housing and health; i. Poverty Alleviation and Allied Programs for social and economic upliftment of weaker sections; vii. Maintenance of Community assets and public distribution system; and viii. Organization and Control of rural markets and village fairs Conclusion It is seen that NGOs play a vital role in the development of rural India. Governments initiatives are not reaching deep root levels . so NGOs are needed to bridge the gaps in reaching to them. This can be achieved by partnership between government and NGOs. The overall benefits should be felt by the rural population. The funds earmarked should be channelled properly to the needed areas and should be optimally utilized. Hence NGOs are consider as perspective medium of achieving development in rural areas. Bibliography cnri. in/ao. htm nmsadguru. org/Article_RuralDevAndNGOAndGovPolicy. htm akdn. org/rural_development/india. asp worlded. org/docs/Publications/idr/pdf/16-6. pdf Rural poverty and agricultural performance in India – Montek s ahluwalia adb. org/Documents/Reports/Civil-Society-Briefs/IND/CSB-IND. pdf http://scholar. google. co. in/schhp? hl=entab=ws

Review Of Escape From New York Essays - Fiction, Science Fiction

Review Of Escape From New York Essays - Fiction, Science Fiction Review Of Escape From New York In the opening sequence of John Carpenter's Escape From New York, an anonymous narrator sets the tone of desperation and hopelessness with the line once you go in, you never come out. The narrator is referring to the only rule in the maximum security prison built on Manhattan Island. The prison, which was built in 1981 as a reaction to the crime rate going up 400 percent, has no guards. It's every man for himself. The once busy streets of New York city are now nearly deserted, decayed, and run by criminals. The hell on Earth is so unbearable that some attempt to break out of the prison, on a raft, in an almost Escape From Alcatraz fashion in the opening scene. The plot thickens as a group of terrorists hijack the President's plane and crash it in New York. The President is now somewhere in the New York prison and holds an important tape containing a speech that could prevent another world war. Snake Plissken, a tough, renowned war hero and recent inmate of the prison, is the government's only hope to save the world. Snake must capture the President within 24 hours so the President can present the tape at a peace summit the next day. In exchange for his good deed, the government promises to pardon him for every crime he has ever committed. The only catch is the two capsules implanted in his head. If he doesn't complete the mission in 24 hours the capsules will explode. Along the journey, Snake meets a rainbow of characters. He runs into Cabbie, who has driven the same taxi for 30 years in New York. He represents the nostalgia of the once great Big Apple. Snake fights the evil Duke of New York to capture the President. The Duke is the typical bad guy clad in lavish gold chains and surrounded by a group of dimwitted followers. Snake befriends Brain, a timid reserved genius and Maggie, his beautiful girlfriend. Their love affair adds a humanistic touch to the cold insensitive surroundings. In the midst of escaping from the prison, Brain dies on a bridge. Maggie refuses to go on with Snake and calmly awaits her own impending death on the bridge. Dismal tragedy doesn't dominate the movie, however. Elements of humor are found in scenes such as the prisoners' song and dance rendition of the Broadway tune Everybody's Coming to New York and the recurring line mentioned to Snake by each person he meets: I thought you were dead. In addition to humor, several strong themes are found in the film. Escape From New York can be easily compared to a mythic epic journey despite Snake's anti-hero I don't give a damn qualities. The gods (the government) sends Snake on a journey to capture the President. Difficult obstacles hinder his quest. At one point, he must fight a giant with clubs (baseball bats with spikes attached) and a shield (a trashcan lid). Escape From New York can also be compared to a Western with a futuristic twist. The good guys (Snake) and the bad guys (the Duke and his gang) are clearly defined. Old fashioned pistols are replaced with explosives and machine guns. The most obvious theme, however, is its attempt to address today's social problems. If the crime rate actually rose dramatically, what would America do about it? Would they take such drastic measures and put all the misfits of society on an island to die to avoid the risk of repeat offenders? The issue of America's diminishing trust in fair honest government and its leaders is also raised. When Snake is told that the President is missing he nonchalantly says, So? Get a new one. This movie attempts to enlighten the viewer about these issues in addition to entertaining them. Many critics have complained that this movie leaves too many questions unanswered, but I find Carpenter's use your imagination approach to the movie refreshing. In the final scene, Snake asks the President how he feels about the lives lost in the attempt to rescue him (the President). The President, who is about to go the air, impatiently responds this country appreciates their sacrifice. Snake walks away dissatisfied with the President's halfhearted answer as the President plays the tape containing the important

Capital Maintenance Case of Trevor v Whitworth †Free Samples

Capital Maintenance Doctrine is not a new concept and it has existed more than a decade. This is a doctrine that was first recognized in the case of Trevor v Whitworth in the year 1887. In this case, the judge argued that it is reasonable for a company to lose money in business transactions, and this is basically because of the risks involved in business (Armour 2000). However, it is not reasonable or acceptable for a company to engage in activities that will lead to a reduction of its capital. This is because it will be against the desire of investors and their reasons of investing in a company, which is capital growth.   Ã‚  Ã‚   On this basis, it is possible to assert that the intention of the capital maintenance doctrine is to protect the capital that investors have invested in a company. However, in Ooregum Gold Mining v Roper, the court was of the opinion that capital maintenance doctrine is aimed at preserving and promoting the principle of limited liability (Hannigan 2015). The reasoning of the court is that a shareholder has a limited liability, and it is limited to the extent in the value of his shares. Therefore, reducing the capital of the organization may frustrate the ability of a company to pay off its debts.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Moreover, the 2001 Corporation Act supports the doctrine of Capital Maintenance, and this is depicted in section 256A of the Act, which prevents the company from engaging in any activity that may threaten the financial position and stability of the company. Examples of these activities include financing the operations of other companies, engaging in the expensive process of purchasing buyback shares, etc (Borg 2015). In as much as the doctrine of capital maintenance is useful to creditors and shareholders, the   law allows a company to reduce its capital in some circumstances. For instance, section 254 of the 2001 Corporations Act allows a company to reduce its capital, if it is a decision that is passed unanimously by its shareholders. When a company reduces the value of its capital after getting permission from the shareholders, the process must be transparent and equitable (Hanrahan, Ramsay and Stapledon 2013). Additionally, if the company becomes insolvent because of the reduction of its capital, the directors of the company would be held liable. Therefore, it is their responsibility to ensure that during the process, the value of liabilities does not exceed the value of its capital. Finally, in the case of Fowlers Vocola Manufacturing Company; it is acceptable for a company to reduce the value of its capital, if it seeks to refund investors their capital. Armour, J., 2000. Share capital and creditor protection: Efficient rules for a modern company law .  The Modern   Law Review, pp.355-378. Borg, D.J., 2015. The acquisition of own shares by limited liability companies. Hanrahan, P.F., Ramsay, I. and Stapledon, G.P., 2013. Commercial applications of company law. Hannigan, B., 2015.  Company law . Oxford University Press,.  

Reflective assignment Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Reflective assignment - Essay Example I had been determined to: Consequently, I decided to become professional nurse in my life for which I had always been curious to become in practical life. Fortune gave me an opportunity of working as junior nurse at a community hospital as soon as I passed my A Levels exams. It is therefore, it was a pleasant experience to join as assistant community nurse at my local town. Though it was not a higher qualification certificate, yet it was sufficient to permit me work as this position. At hospital, I had orientation with the tasks and duties related to nursing. I enjoyed myself while working with the qualified doctors, experienced nurses and other dedicated staff of the hospital. I also got acquainted with the co-workers serving at the same position of assistant nurse. Among these co-workers, two assistant nurses became my classmates at college. At the hospital, I came to know the problems faced by the healthcare staff members while performing their duties and obligations. I was really moved to observe the dedication of doctors, nurses, cleansing staff and helpers during the course of their services-rendering, where all the staff forgot its own comforts for the sake of the patients under treatment at the hospital. Hence, I learnt that the nursing was not mere a profession; rather, it was a virtuous act to help the suffering humanity come out the state of misery. They deal with the patients undergoing various diseases and viruses, with extreme care and patience. â€Å"More so than other professionals†, Gaddis submits, â€Å"nurses intimately understand the communicable characteristics of a potentially contagious virus. And much like any transmittable organism, communications have the ability to infect or heal: With every word and action you are either positively affecting or negatively infecting your work environment . Your inner perceptions and attitude strongly impacts your outward attitude,

Research critique on Women with Dementia Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

Critique on Women with Dementia - Research Paper Example The study was written in APA style with correct citations throughout the article. There was an extensive reference list at the end of the article that spanned 26 years (1979-2005). The references are aligned with different aspects of the study and the authors provided an extensive list that could have been used by someone who wanted to conduct another study like it. There was no indication of the authors’ credentials on the article so more research was available about the authors. Ward-Griffin is an educator and researcher at the Lawson Health Research Institute in Canada, focusing on â€Å"gender, care work and health† (Ward-Griffin, 2013, para. 1). Her research has been funded nationally. Bol is a Nurse Case Manager at the London Health Sciences Centre in London, Ontario. Her specialty is psychogeriatric nursing, according to her LinkedIN profile. Oudshoorn is an assistant professor at the Arthur Labatt Family School of Nursing in Canada and his specialties are in community health and mental health (Western Health Sciences, 2013). All three researchers have the qualifications to add expertise to this article. The title of this article was misleading because it appeared at the first several readings of the title that the authors were talking to the adult daughters of women with dementia. When reading the paper, the authors talked to women with dementia about the care that they were receiving from their daughters. This made a very different objective for the gathering of data and the presentation of the results than if the study had interviewed the women. The researchers conducted 10 in-depth and semi-structured interviews with 10 women living in the community. The average age for the participants was 88 years of age but the range of ages was from 75 to 98. The average time spent with mothers and daughters together was three

Consumption Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Consumption - Essay Example Every nation has a leader of its own who makes sure that all the citizens live as expected. The rules and regulations that govern each nation vary from one to the next. This is one factor giving a clear impression that individuals are expected to control consumerism basing on the type of life in their nation. The key factor that contributes to difference in how people consume is cash. The amount of cash will always determine the degree of consumerism. Thesis statement: Consumerism majorly depends on the character of an individual. This means that it is an individual who is supposed to control how he or she makes consumption without depending on other people. Consumerism is defined basing on the amount of money an individual has. People in the globe engage in different activities that earn them salaries that differ. This means that it is the individual who decides on how to manage what is available in order to have all needs catered for. The rate of consumerism many at times bases on peer pressure. In the contemporary society, it is clear that many individuals have the tendency of purchasing items in order to be in the same social class with the colleagues to avoid shame. Many individuals tend to suffer from inferiority complex when their friends succeed in many things and they are left behind. In this case, they tend to try their best to make certain that they live the way their friends live yet they are not able to do so. In such instances, an individual is forced to do what he or she has not planned for. This result in embezzlement of funds because they end up being used in fields they were not intended to. Those who have the behavior to follow what other do end up messing up their lives because they live their lives basing on what other people do and this makes it difficult for them to be and accept who they really are. In this essay I will specifically point out on the idea that I want to get a new iPhone. I was previously using a Samsung galaxy but as time goes by I needed a new phone because new and more advanced models are being produced. This gives a clear impression that i do not want to be left behind. I am the one who is following the trend of fashionable items which makes it difficult for me to have a perfect budget. I may therefore end up buying items that I did not intend for. This is an issue which affects many individuals in the society making it difficult for them to have perfect plans financially. Many individuals tend to go for modern things without unlimited wish. This means that when new products in the market many people tend to go for them regardless of the price to make sure they are not left behind. â€Å"The latest technology, the latest trend in fashion, the latest cars and laptops, we’ve got to have them†. Resisting financial peer pressure.†This is one illustration giving a clear impression that there are many individuals who tend to follow up on fashion. Youths on the other hand, tend to fo llow up on fashion because they want to fit well in the teen fashion scene. â€Å"Emotional shoppers tend to spend when they are sad to make themselves feel better. Emotional shoppers tend to shop when they are happy to celebrate. Emotional shoppers tend to shop when they are bored to give them something to do.† I used to be an emotional shopper Since it is money that is the main factor affecting consumerism, many individuals suffer

Ethical Issues Affecting Businesses Today Term Paper

Ethical Issues Affecting Businesses Today - Term Paper Example There exists a direct correlation between ethics and businesses, with the long-term benefits associated with the interaction between the two being sustainable businesses. To understand what constitutes a responsible business, it is essential to consider morally acceptable business practices. In this regard, a responsible business behaves ethically and ethics are the moral precepts that determine the acceptable code of behavior (Riley 2012). The responsible business practice entails making decisions that are both legal and morally sound, basing on general standards of acceptable behavior in society. The other notions that work in conjunction with business ethics include corporate social responsibility, corporate responsibility, sustainable business and social enterprise, whereby it is hardly possible to separate these concepts, as they are highly interrelated. This is because an ethical business must be socially responsible, and similarly, a socially responsible business must be ethic al; therefore, these concepts are interlinked. Social responsibility is a broad concept as it covers the relationship between businesses and all the stakeholders involved and this relationship is defined with ethical principles and obligations. Every business is obliged to operate responsibly, and this entails doing what is morally acceptable and right all times; this calls for the establishment of principles that act as guidelines for the business. These principles define how the business relates to other stakeholders in the society such as consumers, suppliers, the surrounding communities and the government at large. Businesses must be careful to maintain good relationships with all these stakeholders for if they have to operate within the financial markets; this has both long term and short-term benefits. Businesses that are able to maintain such effective relationships are thus said to be socially responsible;  a socially responsible  business meets its  obligations to soc iety. For instance, businesses are expected to treat their employees with the utmost respect especially concerning employee privacy and protect employee rights such as entitlement to decent wages (Patil 2012); businesses that breach this obligation are bound to face criticism. Many businesses today have signed the UN Global Compact that obliges them to be socially responsible especially concerning environmental protection, human rights and labor standards (â€Å"From Fringe to mainstream† 2012). There has been a global drive to help firms become more socially responsible, especially with the initiatives of B- Lab, a non-profit organization that helps private firms be socially responsible (â€Å"B Lab's Bart Houlahan† 2012). Corporate responsibility entails being accountable to the society in general, by engaging in healthy business practices that promote the wellbeing of the world at large. In this case, businesses must take responsibility for their actions, as a form of responsible business behavior as opposed to being insensitive and unresponsive. Both excellent and awful corporate responsibility influences not only on the local communities of operation but also on the world at large. For instance, corporate responsibility has socio-economic and environmental effects in the world, and these can be either positive or negative.

In God We Trust as U.S. Motto Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

In God We Trust as U.S. Motto - Essay Example So, who is that "God Americans trust" And the word "trust", why not in God Americans believe or to God they aspire or to God they pray No Holy book has the word in God we trust And why the masons call god the grand architect God is the creator not only the architect, the architect does not create, make or touch anything except his instruction pencil, but God said in the Koran: So, God is not only architect, but He is the Creator of whole humanity, and the whole thing else (Adel, 2004, p. 57). So, why they say the majestic designer If they didn't mean supernatural being, then whom are they complaining or talking about What is the drawing of this majestic designer How his design does look like So, who is the architect of the seal, and the U.S. one-dollar There have been two notable developments since World War II, both of which are gaps between "what everybody knows" and what in fact the case is. One is that religious learning, which traditionally has been a sectarian study of Christianity-centered in the seminaries of different values, has moved to the universities. U.S. citizens remain largely unaware of the secular scholarship of religious conviction (Judith, 1996). This gap has very real results and consequences, for instance in deciding public policy issues such as women's choice2 - when does a fetus have a 'soul' And become a 'person' - stem cell research, and the study of evolution in public schools (Judith, 1996). The other worth mentioning development is the hotheaded expansion of Eastern religious faiths in the U.S. Conservative estimates of the growth of Buddhism suggest a ten-fold increase in the last 40 years, to approximately two million supporters (Lewis, 2007). That is about half the number of Muslims and a third the number of Jews in America, in just 40 years (Samuel 1998, p. 65). Who, immediately after World War II, would have guessed there would be a major Buddhist center, Deer Park, in rural Oregon, W I, a few miles from Madison, W I and one of the American headquarters of the Dalai Lama (Lewis, 2007) A similar story could be told about the number of Hindus and Taoists in the U.S. since World War II. This gap between religious diversity and whatever everyone knows leads to both funniest stories and unnecessary conflicts (Lewis 2007). This image of "a wall of separation between church and state" has become a classic metaphor and legal concept in American judicial history, but the reality is far more complicated and compromised. As Ronald Thiemann examines with no small biting wit, "The day Justice Black penned those historic words; the U.S. Court of Law was summoned with the chant, 'God save this honorable court'" (Robert, 2006, p. 25). A few hundred yards

Consumption Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Consumption - Essay Example Every nation has a leader of its own who makes sure that all the citizens live as expected. The rules and regulations that govern each nation vary from one to the next. This is one factor giving a clear impression that individuals are expected to control consumerism basing on the type of life in their nation. The key factor that contributes to difference in how people consume is cash. The amount of cash will always determine the degree of consumerism. Thesis statement: Consumerism majorly depends on the character of an individual. This means that it is an individual who is supposed to control how he or she makes consumption without depending on other people. Consumerism is defined basing on the amount of money an individual has. People in the globe engage in different activities that earn them salaries that differ. This means that it is the individual who decides on how to manage what is available in order to have all needs catered for. The rate of consumerism many at times bases on peer pressure. In the contemporary society, it is clear that many individuals have the tendency of purchasing items in order to be in the same social class with the colleagues to avoid shame. Many individuals tend to suffer from inferiority complex when their friends succeed in many things and they are left behind. In this case, they tend to try their best to make certain that they live the way their friends live yet they are not able to do so. In such instances, an individual is forced to do what he or she has not planned for. This result in embezzlement of funds because they end up being used in fields they were not intended to. Those who have the behavior to follow what other do end up messing up their lives because they live their lives basing on what other people do and this makes it difficult for them to be and accept who they really are. In this essay I will specifically point out on the idea that I want to get a new iPhone. I was previously using a Samsung galaxy but as time goes by I needed a new phone because new and more advanced models are being produced. This gives a clear impression that i do not want to be left behind. I am the one who is following the trend of fashionable items which makes it difficult for me to have a perfect budget. I may therefore end up buying items that I did not intend for. This is an issue which affects many individuals in the society making it difficult for them to have perfect plans financially. Many individuals tend to go for modern things without unlimited wish. This means that when new products in the market many people tend to go for them regardless of the price to make sure they are not left behind. â€Å"The latest technology, the latest trend in fashion, the latest cars and laptops, we’ve got to have them†. Resisting financial peer pressure.†This is one illustration giving a clear impression that there are many individuals who tend to follow up on fashion. Youths on the other hand, tend to fo llow up on fashion because they want to fit well in the teen fashion scene. â€Å"Emotional shoppers tend to spend when they are sad to make themselves feel better. Emotional shoppers tend to shop when they are happy to celebrate. Emotional shoppers tend to shop when they are bored to give them something to do.† I used to be an emotional shopper Since it is money that is the main factor affecting consumerism, many individuals suffer

In God We Trust as U.S. Motto Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

In God We Trust as U.S. Motto - Essay Example So, who is that "God Americans trust" And the word "trust", why not in God Americans believe or to God they aspire or to God they pray No Holy book has the word in God we trust And why the masons call god the grand architect God is the creator not only the architect, the architect does not create, make or touch anything except his instruction pencil, but God said in the Koran: So, God is not only architect, but He is the Creator of whole humanity, and the whole thing else (Adel, 2004, p. 57). So, why they say the majestic designer If they didn't mean supernatural being, then whom are they complaining or talking about What is the drawing of this majestic designer How his design does look like So, who is the architect of the seal, and the U.S. one-dollar There have been two notable developments since World War II, both of which are gaps between "what everybody knows" and what in fact the case is. One is that religious learning, which traditionally has been a sectarian study of Christianity-centered in the seminaries of different values, has moved to the universities. U.S. citizens remain largely unaware of the secular scholarship of religious conviction (Judith, 1996). This gap has very real results and consequences, for instance in deciding public policy issues such as women's choice2 - when does a fetus have a 'soul' And become a 'person' - stem cell research, and the study of evolution in public schools (Judith, 1996). The other worth mentioning development is the hotheaded expansion of Eastern religious faiths in the U.S. Conservative estimates of the growth of Buddhism suggest a ten-fold increase in the last 40 years, to approximately two million supporters (Lewis, 2007). That is about half the number of Muslims and a third the number of Jews in America, in just 40 years (Samuel 1998, p. 65). Who, immediately after World War II, would have guessed there would be a major Buddhist center, Deer Park, in rural Oregon, W I, a few miles from Madison, W I and one of the American headquarters of the Dalai Lama (Lewis, 2007) A similar story could be told about the number of Hindus and Taoists in the U.S. since World War II. This gap between religious diversity and whatever everyone knows leads to both funniest stories and unnecessary conflicts (Lewis 2007). This image of "a wall of separation between church and state" has become a classic metaphor and legal concept in American judicial history, but the reality is far more complicated and compromised. As Ronald Thiemann examines with no small biting wit, "The day Justice Black penned those historic words; the U.S. Court of Law was summoned with the chant, 'God save this honorable court'" (Robert, 2006, p. 25). A few hundred yards